This artiicle first appeared in Grace and Truth Magazine published in Nairob
Conscience - Gathering data and defining what it is
An obvious area of pastoral theology, often neglected, is that of conscience. In order to understand conscience we first need to gather the scriptural data and attempt to define just what conscience is.
Gathering data
The idea of conscience is familiar enough. Everybody, it seems, has one. Your conscience speaks to you, it gives you a hard time. Different writers in different fields with different viewpoints have written many different things about it. Our ideas must be from God's Word.
Old Testament
The Old Testament makes no reference to conscience, not if you use an old or original version. If you use a modern version the translators may have decided to introduce the word where the idea is present, even though the word is not. It appears that the ancient Hebrews had no use for the term, perhaps because, as God’s chosen people, they received direct revelation so were, in some ways, less immediately aware of conscience.
Old Testament believers spoke more readily of their hearts reflecting on revelation. So, for example, David says in Psalm 16:7 “I will praise the Lord, who counsels me; even at night my heart instructs me”. See also Psalm 40:8 (“your law is in my heart”), Ecclesiastes 7:22 (“you know in your heart that many times you yourself have cursed others”) and Psalm 19:11, which speaks of God's servant being warned by the law.
Adam
The idea of conscience is certainly there almost from the beginning. When, after their sin, Adam and Eve hide in fear at the sound of the LORD God walking in the garden in the cool of the day (Genesis 3:8, 10) that is surely the earliest example of conscience at work.
William Bates days that Adam's “conscience began an early hell within him”. “Paradise with all its pleasures could not secure him from that sting in his breast, and that sharpened by the hand of God”. Adam's soul was racked “with the certain and fearful expectation of judgement.”
Conscience is still at work a little later when Adam then Eve both try to put the blame for their sin elsewhere (Genesis 3:11-13). Even today our first instinct when sin is discovered is often the same. First - try to cover it up; if that fails, try blaming others.
John 3:20 “Everyone who does evil hates the light, and will not come into the light for fear that their deeds will be exposed”. Genesis 4:14, Cain says that he “will be a restless wanderer on the earth, and whoever finds me will kill me” which sounds suspiciously like the terror of a guilty conscience, as several commentators notice.
Joseph and his brothers
At the other end of Genesis you have the story of Joseph and his brothers. Several writers single it out as a story where conscience plays an important role.
Genesis 37: first Reuben, then Judah, appeal to the consciences of the brothers. Reuben argues against killing Joseph, saying “"Let us not take his life … Shed no blood; throw him into this pit here in the wilderness, but do not lay a hand on him”. Judah says they will gain nothing by killing their brother and hiding the fact. He suggests they sell him to the Ishmaelites instead, adding a direct appeal to conscience, “for he is our brother, our own flesh.”
Joseph's brothers act on a common fallacy. They figure it will be enough simply to take suitable precautions against their crime being discovered. What they forget is the conscience.
Despite great efforts to hide their sin, even wickedly brazening it out before their father, the truth eventually comes out. It is a striking story full of interesting twists and turns and it reminds us how dramatic God's providence can sometimes be. Their guilty consciences seem to sleep for many years but it is like a ticking time bomb waiting to explode. When they are unexpectedly forced to return to the very land into which they had sold Joseph and stand before him, unrecognised at first, their consciences suddenly awake again and began to speak at a volume they cannot ignore and with an authority they cannot resist.
Genesis 42:21 tells us the very mention of youngest brother Benjamin stirred their consciences so that they said to each other “surely we are being punished because of our brother. We saw how distressed he was when he pleaded with us for his life, but we would not listen; that’s why this distress has come upon us.” Matthew Henry observes how “guilty consciences are apt to take good providences in a bad sense; to put wrong meanings even upon things that make for them.”
Suddenly, the brothers vividly recollect the all but forgotten scene of yesteryear. Now it is as if it had happened the day before. A long time has passed but suddenly one event, one that took up just one day, looms exceedingly large on the horizon. They are forced to watch the replay in high definition and hear it in surround sound, the button set to replay. “The imperishable records of conscience” are unexpectedly and unwillingly brought into the light of day. A bolt of lightning illuminates the sky as conscience abruptly breaks through the dark clouds of suppression and denial.
Conscience is often active before any other informant, witness or judge speaks. It has the power to connect events in its own unique way, combining things otherwise distant, dissimilar and apparently detached from each other.
Later, a cup is found in Benjamin's sack and they say “What can we say? How can we prove our innocence? God has uncovered your servants' guilt.” (Gen 44:16). The reaction is prompted not by guilt for having stolen anything but guilt over what they'd done to Joseph.
When Joseph finally reveals himself, they are terrified, a terror again borne of a guilty conscience (Gen 45:3). Even after reconciliation, Jacob's departure again stirs conscience and they are fearful (Gen 50:15). As one writer puts it, a guilty conscience casts a long shadow.
Joseph suffered a great deal after being sold into Egypt but one burden he never had to carry was that of a guilty conscience. He knew that he did not deserve to be suffering as he was. Under God, this no doubt gave him a good deal of peace and consolation. In contrast, what a sense of condemnation his brothers laboured under. When Joseph himself was faced with temptation at one point, he stood firm because he kept conscience on the throne. He wisely traced the likely consequences of sin and responded to Potiphar's wife and her advances with a sincere and wise “how then could I do such a wicked thing and sin against God?” (Gen 39:9b).
The pain of sin's sting consists very much in the recollections of an awakening conscience. Suddenly, the enchantment is broken, the illusion is over. Conscience wakes, like a giant from slumber, and the individual is forced to hear accusations he cannot answer, charges he cannot counter, reproofs he cannot repel.
Other examples
There are many other places in the Old Testament where the idea of conscience surfaces. In Job 27:6 Job says “I hold fast my righteousness and will not let it go; my heart does not reproach me for any of my days.” In Genesis 20:5, 6 Abimelech tells God “I have done this with a clear conscience and with innocent hands” and God replies, “Yes, I know that you have done this with a clear conscience, ….”. (NET).
The hardening of Pharaoh's heart can also be related to the subject of conscience. Moses' own conscience is seen to be at work in Exodus 2 when, having killed an Egyptian, he is distraught to find that his act has been observed.
On at least two occasions we see David’s conscience at work. In 1 Samuel 24:5 we read how he was conscience-stricken “for having cut off a corner of” Saul's robe, and in 1 Samuel 24:10 after he counted the fighting men. Also see Abigail's words “my lord will not have on his conscience the staggering burden of needless bloodshed or of having avenged himself” (1 Samuel 25:31). In Psalms 32, 38 and 51, conscience is seen to be active too.
It was on the basis that everyone has a conscience that the Law was given and the prophets preached. A striking example is seen in the way Nathan dealt with David following his adultery with Bathsheba (1 Sam 12).
The idea of conscience is in many places in the Old Testament. How it may have operated in man as originally created is debatable. What was the significance for conscience of the knowledge of good and evil? Puritan Richard Bernard asserts that conscience was in Adam before the fall but did not function as it later would. Instead, it witnessed to his goodness and bore sway so that he was obedient and able to know joy in God's presence. He suggests that conscience will function in a similar way in the glory of heaven.
New Testament
Gospels
Turning to the New Testament, we find that the Gospels again make no direct reference to conscience. Again, however, even though the term is not used, there is again reason to believe that Jesus has conscience in mind in some places. For example, Luke 12:57, when he asks, “Why don’t you judge for yourselves what is right?”. That is an appeal to conscience. In Mark 3:5 Jesus rails against the stubborn hearts or hardened consciences of the Pharisees.
Paul and also Peter
Most New Testament references to conscience are made by Paul. In fact, of the 30 or so that exist, around 21 are in his letters (three in Romans, 12 in Corinthians, six in Timothy; two others are in sermons of his [Acts 23:1, 24:16] and five are in Hebrews [9:9, 14; 10:2, 22; 13:8], which if not by Paul reflects his style. The only other person to use the word is Peter (1 Peter 3:16, 21).
It is very much Paul’s word, then. Where did he get it? Some suggest it was a specialist word taken over from the Stoic philosophers but it has been demonstrated to have been an everyday word among the Greeks, going back, in one form or another, to at least the sixth century BC.
In a 1955 study, Conscience in the New Testament, C A Pierce suggests that it was a catchword in the Corinthian church, a popular word used to encapsulate an idea. Paul, it seems, took up their word and used it first in correspondence with them and, subsequently, as part of his usual Christian vocabulary. Certainly Paul and other NT writers took up other Greek words and fill them with Christian meaning. Eg Saviour.
The New Testament, like the Old, is perfectly able to speak about conscience without using the word. Galatians 6:4 “Each one should test their own actions. Then they can take pride in themselves alone, without comparing themselves to someone else”. Conscience is not named but how else does one test one's own actions without making comparisons? In 1 John 3:19-21 the word heart is used where the word conscience would fit equally well. “This is how we know that we belong to the truth and how we set our hearts at rest in his presence: If our hearts condemn us, we know that God is greater than our hearts, and he knows everything. Dear friends, if our hearts do not condemn us, we have confidence before God.”
When we speak of conscience, we are really speaking of the heart or soul. The word is useful, however, for speaking of a specific function of the soul, namely its moral workings.
Romans 2:14, 15
The nearest the New Testament comes to a definition of conscience is Romans 2:14,15. “For when Gentiles, who do not have the law, by nature do what the law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the law. They show that the work of the law is written on their hearts, while their conscience also bears witness, and their conflicting thoughts accuse or even excuse them.”
A number of things emerge from this statement.
1. That everyone has a conscience, even pagans. The conscience belongs to man as man.
2. These verses help us to distinguish the various elements involved in making a moral decision. Although we use the word conscience in a general way to refer to the whole business of making moral decisions, there are, in fact, at least three clearly identifiable strands in the process.
(1) The requirements of the Law of God, which are written on every man’s heart.
(2) The conscience itself, which makes its judgements on the basis of the preceding element.
(3) There are a person’s thoughts or opinions. These come as he makes a decision on the basis of the mediation of conscience proper.
The Puritans and others noticed the correspondence between this threefold distinction and the practical syllogism, a way of reasoning found in the writings of Aristotle. The practical syllogism is an argument in three propositions - 1. A major premise stating some universal truth 2. A minor premise stating some particular truth 3. A conclusion derived from the two premises.
So it may be that a man, 1. From his moral record, learns the fact lying is wrong (major premise); 2. His conscience, therefore, tells him that to make up a story about why he'd not completed the task he was required to complete would be a lie (minor premise); 3. In his thinking or opinion, therefore, he decides to tell a lie would be wrong (conclusion).
Similarly, 1. In his moral record he may know that bank robbers deserve punishment (major promise) 2. His conscience may acknowledge that he has robbed a bank (minor premise) 3. In his thinking or opinion, therefore, he has to see he deserves to be punished (conclusion).
We will need to say more about Romans 2;14, 15 but first we simply note the significance of the verses and the fact there is a good deal of material on conscience in the Bible, more perhaps than we might expect. This underlines the importance of the subject.
Definition
Philosophers, psychologists and theologians down the ages have wrestled with the problem of conscience and have arrived at divergent conclusions. In any study of the subject it is good to seek to give a clear definition of what conscience is. ...
